Articles

Can Irrelevant Quantity Information Influence Judgments of Productivity?

By Brad Bell

Imagine that you are working at your desk and you have a pile of papers and books on your desk.  You glance at this pile and think to yourself that you have been quite productive today.  Your judgment is based on the size of the pile on your desk.  While this approach to judging productivity could be a valid indicator of productivity in some situations, it may often not be.

In their first experiment, Josephs, Giesler, and Silvera (1994) had participant complete a task in which they had to put a slash mark through every letter c that they saw in paragraphs.  All participants were stopped after completing five paragraphs.  Participants put their completed work in an outbox.  In one condition, pages were attached to journals (journal condition).  In the other condition, the pages were not attached to journals (page condition).  On the average, participants in the journal condition rated their own productivity as higher than participants in the page condition. (1)  

Their first study demonstrated that an irrelevant quantity factor (pile size in an outbox) could influence judgments of their own productivity.  In their fifth experiment, Josephs et al. (1994) demonstrated that this irrelevant quantity factor (pile size in an outbox) influence judgments of their own productivity only when it was in full view when they made their productivity judgments.

There are important practical implications.  When judging our own productivity at work it may be best to make these judgments when an irrelevant quantity factor (e.g., pile size in an outbox) is not in our view.    Irrelevant information may influence the judgments of writers and publishers.  Writers may write books that are longer than they need to be.  They may add unnecessary words to make the books longer.  This could result in too much paper being used and readers being unhappy with the time and effort it makes to read something.  Moreover, publishers may reject worthy books because they do not contain enough words.

Notes

1.  See their article for other findings.

References

Josephs, R. A., Giesler, R. B., & Silvera, D. H.  (1994).  Judgment by Quantity. Jourmal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 21-32.

Can Watching a Comedy Film Make You More Creative?

By Brad Bell

You are having writer’s block.  You are staring at your computer screen and you cannot think of what to write next.  You have been working on a novel for more than two years, and now it is quite frustrating that you cannot complete the last several pages of the novel.  You decide to view a comedy film.  The movie makes you laugh a great deal.  It makes you feel better.  You go back to your computer.  You are finding that it is much easier to write, and you feel you are very creative in what you write.  You are able to finish the novel in several hours.  Did the comedy film make you think more creatively?

 In the first two experiments, Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) found that people who watched a comedy film were more likely to solve a problem requiring a creative solution than people who watched a neutral film.  Their fourth experiment involved a comedy film and the Remote Associates Test.  The mean number of items correct on this test was higher for people who watched a comedy film than for people who did not watch a comedy film. (1)  The hypothesis was that positive emotion would foster creativity.  Thus, the comedy film may have fostered creative thinking because it increased positive emotion.

Implications for Fostering Creativity and How to be Creative

These findings have important implications for fostering creativity and how to be creative.  Before we write a poem, essay, or work on a book it may be good to first view a comedy film.  Moreover, if we are working on a problem at work that requires a creative solution, it may be good to first view a comedy film.  This could increase creative problem solving.

Notes

1.  See their article for more findings.  

References

Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987).  Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.

Can Soothing Music Increase Helping?

By Brad Bell

You have been listening to soothing music while reading a book.  You go to answer the phone.  It is a volunteer who is asking you to donate to a nonprofit. You are feeling happy and relaxed.  You agree to donate 10 dollars to the organization.  Did listening to the soothing music influence your decision to donate to the organization?

Fried and Berkowitz (1979) investigated the influence of music on helping behavior.  The participants were college students.  There were four groups in their experiment.  One group did not listen to music.  The other groups listened to either soothing music, aversive music, or stimulating music.  In this experiment, the participants first completed a mood questionnaire.  For the participants in one of the three music conditions, they completed the mood questionnaire before and after hearing the music.  In the no music condition, the participants also completed the mood questionnaire twice, but sat in silence for seven minutes.  After this, all participants were asked by the experimenter if they would be willing to participate in another experiment.   Fried and Berkowitz found that people who listening to the soothing music were more likely to agree to the experimenter’s request (to participate in another experiment) than people who did not listen to music.  They also found that the mean amount of time volunteered was greater for people who listened to soothing music than for people who did not listen to music. Fried and Berkowitz found that the stimulating music and the aversive music did not increase helping.  The differences between the stimulating music group and the no music group were not statistically significant with respect to the percentage of people helping and the amount of time volunteered.  Moreover, the differences between the aversive music group and the no music group were not statistically significant with respect to the percentage of people helping and the amount of time volunteered. (1)

These findings may have important practical implications.  Helping behavior may be increased by listening to soothing music.  Fundraising events could involve soothing music.

Notes

1. North, Tarrant, and Hargreaves (2004) also conducted a study involving music and helping behavior.  Their study involved uplifting and annoying music.   However, their study did not have a no music condition.  Thus, it is unclear whether the uplifting music had increased helping behavior.

References

Fried, R., & Berkowitz, L.  (1979).  Music hath charms…and can influence helpfulness.  Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, 199-208.

North, A. C., Tarrant, M., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2004).  The effects of music on helping behavior:  A field study.  Environment and Behavior, 36, 266-275.

 Vividness and Memory

By Brad Bell

  Imagine that you have to teach a course that many students find difficult and dry.  Many students seem to have difficulty recalling many of the concepts in the course.  What can you do to increase their recall of concepts and improve grades on exams?   Presenting information in a vivid manner is one possible technique that might increase recall of information.  Information could be presented in a more vivid manner by making it more concrete, detailed, and colorful. Some studies suggest that greater vividness in a message increases the ability to recall information in a message (e.g., Collins, Taylor, & Wood, 1988; Shedler & Manis, 1986).

In their first experiment, Shedler and Manis (1986) had participants listen to tape recording involving favorable and unfavorable arguments with respect a mother’s fitness as a parent.  In one condition, all the favorable arguments had vivid versions, and all the unfavorable arguments had nonvivid versions.  The opposite was true in the other condition.  The participants were asked to recall the arguments 48 hours later.  Their results suggest that greater vividness, on the average, increased the ability to recall arguments.  

In their second study, Collins, Taylor, and Wood 1988) had participants listen to four messages.  Their findings suggest that greater vividness, on the average, increased recall of message content.  However, greater vividness may not always increase recall of information in a message.  

Frey and Eagly (1993) did not find that greater vividness increased recall of information.  In fact, in their low intentional constraint condition, a vivid editorial decreased recall, on the average.  They also found that a vivid editorial was perceived to be more distracting and as having a less logical train of thought.   Thus, it may be important that the vivid information in a message is logical and not distracting.  (1)   In order to recall a message, ideas, or concepts, it may be good to create detailed and colorful examples that are perceived to be not distracting, and also logically consistent with the message, ideas, or concepts.  This might be a way to increase recall of the message, ideas, or concepts.   More research may be needed to gain a better understanding of the influence of vividness on memory.

Notes

1.  See their article for more information about their
study and findings.

References

Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Wood, J. V.  (1988). The vividness effect:  Elusive or Illusory?  Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 1-18.
Frey, K. P., & Eagly, A. H.  (1993).  Vividness can undermine the persuasiveness of messages.  Journal Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 32-44.
Shedler, J., Manis, M. (1986).  Can the availability heuristic explain vividness effects?  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 26-36.

Can Writing About the Things You Are Grateful for Make You Feel More Connected with People?

By Brad Bell

Gratitude is a vital aspect of social interaction.  It may reflect a cultural norm.  We may become socialized to express our gratitude to others.  A simple “thank you” has become an automatic part of our everyday communication with others. Can writing about the things you are grateful for foster a sense of connectedness with people?  The answer may be yes. In their third study, Emmons and McCullough (2003) had people complete forms for 21 days. The participants in their third study had a neuromuscular disease.   In this study, they found that people who were asked to write own things they were thankful or grateful for felt more connected with others than people who were not asked to write down these things.(1)   Because we are often grateful or thankful for the things that others have done, thoughts of gratitude could change our views of how close we feel to others.

These findings have important practical implications.  Taking several minutes each day to write about the things you are grateful for may reduce loneliness and make you feel more connected with people.
.
Notes  

1.  See their article for other findings.

References

Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003).  Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377-389.

Can Writing About the Things You Are Grateful for Make Your Life Seem Better?

By Brad Bell

Gratitude is a vital aspect of social interaction.  It may reflect a cultural norm.  We may become socialized to express our gratitude to others.  A simple “thank you” has become an automatic part of our everyday communiction with others.  Writing about the things you are grateful for may change your perspective on life.  You may see the glass as half full, rather than half empty.  Your life as a whole may seem much better.  In their third study, Emmons and McCullough (2003) had people complete forms for 21 days. The participants in their third study had a neuromuscular disease.  In this study, they found that people who were asked to write down things they were thankful or grateful for perceived their life as a whole better than people who were not asked to write down these things.(1) These findings have important practical implications.  Taking several minutes each day to write about the things you are grateful for may foster a positive view of your life.

 Notes:  

1.  See their article for other findings.

References:

Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003).  Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377-389.

Psychology of Forgiveness:  Does Actual Time and Subjective Temporal Distance Influence Willingness to Forgive?

By Brad Bell

Imagine that you wrote a short story for a writing contest.  You had planned to go to the post office to mail the envelope with the short story in the afternoon.  However, your boss gave you some unexpected work that needed to be completed.  Thus, you were not able to go to the post office.   A friend at work had agreed to take the envelope with the short story to the post office in the afternoon.  However, the next day you learn that your friend failed to take the envelope to the post office. As a result, you did not meet the deadline for the writing contest.  Would you be more likely to forgive your friend after two months than after a few days?

Wohl and McGrath (2007) investigated the influence of amount of time and subjective temporal distance on willingness to forgive someone. In their first experiment, participants read a hypothetical situation in which a friend failed to mail a job application for you before the deadline.  In one condition, the participants learned that this happened about two years ago.  In another condition, they learned that it happened about a month ago.  On the average, people who read that it happened about two years ago indicated that they would be more willing to forgive the friend at the present point in time than the people who read that it happened about a month ago.

Their other two studies provided evidence that the subjective temporal distance of the negative event could influence willingness to forgive.  In Experiment 3, participants were asked to describe an event that happened to them about a month ago.  They manipulated the subjective temporal distance of the event by altering how one of the endpoints of the temporal distance line was labeled.  On the average, participants in the subjectively distant condition indicated that they would be more willing to forgive the person at the present point in time than participants in the subjectively close condition.  (1)

Implications for the Psychology of Forgiveness and Learning How to Forgive

 People may be more willing to forgive someone for a transgression when the actual time since the event is greater, and when the perceived distance in time of the event is greater.   Thus, the psychology of forgiveness suggests that learning how to forgive someone may partly involve time.   

Notes

See their article for information on other findings.

References

Wohl, M. J. A., & McGrath, A. L. (2007).  The perception of time heals all wounds:  Temporal distance affects willingness to forgive following an interpersonal transgression.  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1023-1035.

The Influence of Saying “Like” and “Uh” on Simulated Hiring Decisions

By Brad Bell

During an interview it may be wise to select one’s words carefully, and sound as professional as possible.  Using unnecessary and annoying words such as “like” and “uh” might affect how professional you are perceived to be.  Consequently, the use of these words might decrease the likelihood that you will be hired.

Russell, Perkins, and Grinnell (2008) had participants in their study listen to an audiotape of a person who simulated a person applying for a data entry job. They also received a written transcript.  In the control condition, the person did not use “uh” or “like.”  In the “like” condition, the person said “like” 15 times.  In the “uh” condition, the person said “uh” 15 times.  

 On the average, the person was rated higher in the control condition than in the “like” condition with respect to perceived professionalism and likelihood of being hired. Moreover, on the average, the person was rated higher in the control condition than in the “uh” condition with respect to perceived professionalism and likelihood of being hired. (1)

It should be kept in mind that this study did not involve actual hiring decisions.  Thus, it is not clear whether the findings would generalize to actual hiring decisions. Nonetheless, it may be a good idea for job applicants to avoid using “like” and “uh” during interviews.

Notes

1.  See their article for other findings.

References

Russell, B., Perkins, J., & Grinnell, H.  (2008).  Interviewees’ overuse of the word “like” and hesitations:  Effects in simulated hiring decisions. Psychological Reports, 102, 111-118.

Can Seeing Green Increase Creativity?

By Brad Bell

One interesting topic concerns the influence or effects of color.  More specifically, it may be interesting to learn about the possible effects of the color green.  One question concerning the psychology of green is whether viewing the color green can increase creativity.

Lichtenfeld, Elliot, Maier, and Pekrun (2012) investigated the influence of viewing the color green on creativity in four experiments.  The findings from the four experiments supported the idea that viewing green can increase creativity on a task. For example, in the third experiment, participants who viewed green were, on the average, judged to be more creative on a task than participants who viewed grey or red.   Moreover, the findings of the third and fourth experiments suggest that the effect of viewing the color green on creativity was not due to mood.  The effect of viewing the color green on the mood measure was not stastisically significant in their third and fourth experiments.

These findings may have important practical implications.  To increase creativity, it may be a good idea to view the color green. For example, one could look out the window at the backyard while writing a story or poem.

References

Lichtenfeld, S., Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Pekrun, R.  (2012).  Fertile green:  Green facilitates creative performance.  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 784-797.

The Availability Heuristic

By Brad Bell

The availability heuristic is an important concept in psychology.  What is the availability heuristic?   Tversky and Kahneman (1973) proposed that people may use an availability heuristic to judge frequency and the probability of events.  Using the availability heuristic, people would judge the probability of events by the ease in which instances could be brought to mind.  Thus, using the availability heuristic, people would judge an event to be more likely to occur if they could think of more examples of that event.  

Below are some examples of availability heuristic:

First Availability Heuristic Example:

After seeing many news stories of home foreclosures people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater.  This may be true because it is easier to think of examples of this event.

Second Availability Heuristic Example:

People who read more case studies of successful businesses may judge the probability of running a successful business to be greater.

References

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.  (1973).   Availability:  A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207-232.